Impacts And Future Alternatives Of Mining

Hazards Of Mining

For the existence and development of human society it is necessary to conserve the environment and to simultaneously meet man’s demand for materials through the continuing exploration of mineral resources. However, to a varying degree, mining activities have changed the original state of the environment and created potential dangers for both ecological and social systems. Therefore, the continued development of human society depends on the attitude of the mineral industry towards achieving ecologically sustainabledevelopment of this sector.

The scale of mineral extraction in Tibet is rapidly expanding with China’s industrialisation and modernisation programmes. Mining activities quite obviously impose considerable impacts on the natural environment, but these practices in Tibet have jeopardised not only its natural endowments but also its people. Moreover, as the mineral and energy potential in Tibet is vast and underdeveloped, China will continue to invest heavily in mineral exploration to meet its increasing domestic demand and to reduce its foreign debt. Given these pursuits, further degeneration of the environment is inevitable, which makes the issue of mineral extraction in Tibet of serious concern.

Since the Chinese invasion of Tibet, the use of mineral resources has been unprecedented. The activities have evidently profited the Chinese immensely, as has been revealed by the enormous quantities of production and the increasingly huge investments in the mining sector. This acceleration continues. But the process of extraction has paid little attention to the impact of mining. As a result, despite the generation of huge revenues in fuelling China’s economic growth, mining activities have failed to produce real benefits for Tibetans as the majority still live in impoverished conditions.

Natural Resources
Environmental impacts of mining are largely unreported by the Chinese authorities in Tibet. The extensive mining activities have led to the destabilisation of fragile mountain slopes, degradation of pastures, increased rates of sediment in river catchments, deforestation and other perils. The constant treatment of Tibetan natural resources as if inexhaustible, and the extraction of minerals, has also resulted in water contamination and air pollution. In many areas the pressure on local mineral resources has been mounting each year, further impoverishing the region.

The increasing practise of unchecked mining activities has not just damaged but permanently altered the shape of the plateau’s landscape. Despite protests by local people, vast areas of pastures have been turned into mining zones. The once-99 per cent pastoral land of Tsalung, Diru, Kham, is today completely transformed into a mining zone (TIN 1997b). Nomads and farmers from Nagchu, Central and Eastern Tibet, raised objections when gold mining in their regions was taking a heavy and destructive toll on their pastoral land — but to no avail.

In the gold-rich Serta County, Kandze, Kham, gold mining has devastated the subsistence of the nomads who have lived in the region for centuries. According to a former inhabitant of the region, Jigme Sonam, the Chinese authorities have ordered the evacuation of the Serta area for mining without any monetary or social compensation to the nomads. The land was confiscated under the pretext that it belongs to the “motherland” (TCHRD 1997b).

Vast tracts of rich grazing land were destroyed and more than 17,000 nomads were forced to start a new livelihood when a huge uranium deposit was discovered in Riwoche, Kham in 1990 (Ackerly 1990). In the mineral-rich Amdo Province, extraction and industrialisation have disrupted some 76 per cent of the valley’s 16,000 sq.km area resulting in soil erosion and water loss (Xinhua 1996b).

Lhasa residents’ concern about the ever-increasing dust pollution being caused by cement factories describes the growing air impurity of the region (Xinhua 1998c) and highlights the reckless attitude of the authorities. Further, Tibet’s industrial water treatment is the worst in China, and the percentage of industrial solid wastes in water resources in Amdo are the highest of any province in China (The World Resources 1998).

Human Health and Animals

Hundreds of thousands of litres of untreated, polluted water caused by mining in Tibet pour into major rivers like the Yangtze each day. At the same time, dozens of ferro-silicon, iron, steel, aluminium and silicon carbide plants are releasing their daily dosage of thick poisonous smoke (ICT 1993). All this is hazardous to human health and life. Uranium mining has been linked to illness among the local people, thought to be caused by exposure to radon gas or from drinking water contaminated by mine tailings (ATC 1998). Deaths, injuries and human and animal birth deformities in nearby mining processing are some of the direct effects of the state of mining in Tibet (ICT 1993).

In a village in Ngaba, Amdo, at least 35 people died after drinking water polluted by waste from a nearby uranium mine. Gonpo Dhondup, who escaped from Tibet in 1987, stated at the 1992 World Uranium Hearing in Salzburg, Germany on 14 September, 1992 that in Amdo Province areas surrounding uranium mines have experienced decreasing crop yields and the increasing deaths of domestic animals and fish. He also cited mysterious illnesses among humans including skin and eye diseases, and births of deformed babies. At Thewo, site of the largest uranium mine in Tibet, more than 50 Tibetans and their domestic animal died between 1987-91 from mysterious illnesses. Corpses of both humans and animals turned blue after death.

Population Transfer

Another major problem arising from mining in Tibet is the settlement of an increasing number of Chinese into Tibetan regions in the form of labour, technicians and others. This mass migration has created extra pressures on the plateau’s dwindling natural resources, intensified ethnic tensions, and is leading to the marginalisation of Tibetans in their own country. During gold rush periods in Amdo and in northern ‘TAR’, tens of thousands of Chinese migrated into the area and additional thousands of Chinese were recruited by the government (Xizang Ribao 1994).

Plans for building several towns to accommodate half a million migrant workers in Tibet in April 1996, are in the process with each proposed town set to house about 100,000 workers (Chan 1996). Economic incentives in the form of three to four times the rate of standard pay, tax breaks and lower interest loans, plus subsidies from Beijing totalling US$ 125 million a year, are provided to attract and encourage more Chinese settlers and workers into Tibet (Chu 1999). Subsidised truck fuel and machinery costs, and improved infrastructure, are some of the benefits made to increase the Chinese presence inTibet.

In addition to the legal mining of Tibet’s mineral resources, the potential adverse environmental effects are compounded by widespread illegal mining. Fights among the illegal miners for the best spots of gold in the region are common, often leading to several deaths. According to Gonpo, who was a participant at the Tibet People’s Consultative Conference in Lhasa in May 1995, “there are over 12,000 miners unlawfully extracting gold in Gansu, Amdo and districts of Nagchu in the TAR” (DIIR 1996b).
It is presumed that the number of illegal mining operations, especially for gold, are more common in the Tibetan regions outside ‘TAR’. Both farmers and nomads in these areas have raised serious objections to the heavy extraction of minerals and the consequent destruction of pastures.

Forced Labour

With increasing prospects and advantages in Tibet today more and more Chinese are migrating there resulting in social unrest and ethnic conflicts. Chinese nationals run most of the work in the mineral sector. Local participation and employment in mining enterprises has remained minimal and any direct benefit to Tibetans from such industrial development is insignificant. The use of forced labour, particularly prisoners, in State-run mining and in building infrastructure in Tibet continues to prevail despite heavy international pressure.

For instance, a tungsten mine near Xinduquiao uses about 800 prisoners through the so-called “reform through labour programme” of China (TIN 1995). Tibetan individuals and families often have to work in adjacent mines as demanded by authorities. Failing to turn up for work results in fines and doubling the amount of work next time, and often these labourers are not paid. The deaths of many thousands of peasants from 12-15 hour stints of forced labour in the deserts and mountainous regions of Eastern Turkestan (Xinjiang) are kept secret (Golos Vostochnogo Turkestana 1997).

The use of forced labour is banned under the International Labour Organisation’s Conventions number 29 and number 105. Convention 29 describes forced labour as “work extracted from persons under the menace of penalty and for which the individuals have not offered voluntarily”. Convention 105 is concerned with the banning of forced labour as a “means of political coercion or as punishment for political views, as a method of mobilising and using labour for purposes of economic development or as a means of racial, social, national or religious discrimination”. Clearly, the use of Tibetan and Chinese prison labour violates these conventions.

Social Unrest and Conflicts

Despite the potentially severe impacts of mining on people and the environment in the form of contamination of drinking water or disruption of livelihood, these affected peoples often have very little meaningful input into decisionmaking processes about whether a mine will be constructed or not. Environmental protests by local people have been ignored and crushed; many individuals have been subjected to severe punishments, often leading to long term imprisonment and torture.

In 1991, Phuntsok Chosang and Gyatso pasted posters for the third time to protest the building of roads into their hometown Meldro Gongkar, ‘TAR’, for the transportation of minerals from Thalung Mine in Gyama to China. Subsequently locals in the mining area also raised objections to the operation of the mine because it uses toxic materials and dynamite in blasting the area. According to Phuntsok the mine has caused severe ecological imbalance in the form of soil erosion, frequent rainfall and hailstorms and many wild animals, birds and farm animals have died from the toxic gases released. But the authorities ignored their pleas and both Phuntsok Chosang and Gyatso were imprisoned, tortured and put in solitary confinement for 13 days and nights (TCHRD 1997a).

FUTURE ALTERNATIVES:

The development of mineral industries is inevitable for the overall development of Tibet’s economy. For years the utilisation of Tibet’s mineral resources has been hampered by bureaucratic restrictions, legal uncertainties, illegal mining activities, lack of capital and poor infrastructure. It is, therefore, important to mitigate mining activities through effective government action and policies that propel sound development. The challenge is not to stop development, but to meet development needs of the Tibetan people in a sustainable way.

Effective Legislation

The mineral resources law has an important role to play in promoting rational use as well as in conserving the mineral resources. It was only in August 1986 that China formulated its first mineral resources law, which came into effect in October the same year. But the exploration and extraction of mineral resources in Tibet had already started in 1956. In those three decades both the government and private miners took a huge toll of the fragile environment and the Tibetan people.

Nonetheless, in order to curtail the serious problem of illegal mining and to bring order to many mining localities, China amended its first mining laws on 29 August 1996. This revised law came into effect on 1 January 1997 and is known as the Mineral Resources Law of the “Chinese government” and consists of seven chapters and 53 articles. Though most of the old laws were retained, much of the revamped law has been designed to facilitate modernisation of the mining sector, and to attract increased foreign investment by introducing market mechanisms.

As stated in Article 10 of the Mining Law, “the State should give due consideration to the interests of those areas and make arrangements favourable to the areas’ economic development and to the production and livelihood of the local minority nationalities”. So far the mining industries in Tibet have benefited Tibetans marginally. The statistics of a United Nations Development Program report on Tibet shows a clear fall of life expectancy, a drop of post-school employment, and a decrease in literacy rate to 31 per cent (ICJ 1997).

Proper Implementation of Rules

The situation of mineral resources in Tibet is still quite chaotic and the mining laws and regulations are still in evolution. This can be attributed mainly to the ineffective regulation and unsound legal system. For instance, mining is practised in places specified as a “no mining area” under Article 20 of the Mining Law. Chinese government collect fees by issuing mining rights on public and private lands, but the Tibetans receive no benifits as compensation for encroaching on their ancestral land. Exploration and mining rights issued by the Ministry of Geology and Mineral Resources are not made for public viewing, as stated in the law. The revamped mining laws do not provide any solution for the effective and efficient running of mining activities.

The authorities should not propose the confiscation of land in the name of the “motherland”. Jurisdictional disputes are another obstruction preventing speedy, effective approvals.Clear divisions on authorities should be established at the district and village level to prevent government red tape. Illegal activities and corruption of all kinds should be handled with heavy punishments. If it is a problem to deal within the established structure, a new agency directly appointed from the higher level could be given the charge de force to handle the situation. Other improvements needed include transparency of information dissemination between the government and the public. More research and comparative studies on similar small-scale mining operations should also be conducted.

Technical Upgrading
Due to the use of outdated technologies and equipment in mining activities most of the mines in Tibet suffer from a lack of structure optimisation. The backwardness of technology has resulted in low efficiency in recovery, production and utilisation of the mineral resources. Minimal safety standards, wastage of resources and poor economic returns in most mines are some of the constant problems. Underdevelopment of transportation infrastructure is another issue that remains inadequate in most of the mining areas.

The introduction of appropriate technology is required to minimise environmental damage and improve economic returns. Proper development of technical standards in small and large size production units and providing skills training in the mining sector are just a few changes that can be made to generate better returns.

Participation of People

Environmental Impact Assessments of mining areas should be conducted and the results made available for public viewing before starting any mining projects. It is recommended to allow and encourage the public, especially local communities, to participate in the environmental aspect of mining activities. For example, a Public Hearing or a round table conference can be held prior to the issue of a mineral title by the relevant mining management agency.

Direct benefits to Tibetans should be provided whenever mining is done in their territory. This can be in the form of provision of jobs, social securities and social welfare schemes. All workers in mines should be treated equally regarding job placements. Tibetans hold only about 10 per cent of the mining jobs in Kham and less than 20 per cent in Amdo and U-Tsang, with the rest of the jobs going to Chinese settlers (DIIR 1992). Tibetans should be given preference over other nationals.

Check Human Pressures
The influx of a large number of Chinese workers into Tibet, especially miners, creates serious social and ecological problems. Therefore, mining developments in Tibet — as with all development projects — should discourage Chinese population transfer. Necessary steps should be taken to halt “migrational skilled workers” over the border. Tibetans should be provided technical knowledge and training to develop appropriate skills rather than directly appointing Chinese workers and overseers.

Large proportions of the Chinese settlers in Tibet are illegal miners. The government should take necessary steps to stop illegal mining and the random exploitation of mineral resources. These miners should be punished according to mining laws and must be deported to their native towns.

Foreign Investment

In the past a few foreign companies have been involved in mining in Tibet despite varying difficulties. Some have shown great respect and care for the Tibetan people and some have engaged in jeopardising Tibet’s environment by focussing solely on economic gains. The industrialisation of Amdo, for instance, has attracted a total foreign investment of US$ 400 million, which includes US$ 70 million in foreign loans from aid agencies (Lafitte 1998a).

How much of these so-called developmental projects have benefited the Tibetans is understandable as the real income and standard of living of Tibetans still remains low. On the other hand, both the investors in Tibet and the Chinese government have profitably pocketed from these businesses. The current pattern of development has marginalised Tibetans and excluded them from effective participation, which is an intrinsic aspect of any sound development. The livelihood of most of the Tibetans who live in small rural communities has been neglected, receiving little of the investments (ICJ 1997).

Decisions by investors in Tibet directly will in future affect the plateau’s ecology and the livelihood of Tibetans. It therefore becomes important to consider the local issues thoroughly by building safeguards projects to ensure social development to the Tibetan populace. Proper social, cultural and environmental impact assessments should be done before launching any major mining operations in Tibet. Low priority should be given to massive infrastructure projects such as real estate, intensive mining and resource exploitation, the construction of heavy industries and large dams.

CONCLUSION

Tibet’s unique geological evolution led to the formation of abundant minerals and natural resources. For centuries these resources were not exploited since traditional beliefs prescribed that extraction of minerals would diminish the land’s fertility, upset the presiding deities and harm society. Moreover, there were then no major commercial industries and factories so the mineral resources of Tibet were basically kept intact in a flourishing, natural and peaceful environment.

China’s haphazard mining practices continue to affect the fragile ecology of the Tibetan plateau. These include the destabilisation of fragile mountain slopes, the pollution of major river systems, degradation of agriculture and pastoral lands, deforestation, air pollution, not to mention that diminishing mineral resources lead to the impoverishment of the Tibetan region. Besides ecological concerns, the unregulated mining sector in Tibet is leading to the dilution of Tibetan culture and traditions by encouraging a further influx of Chinese settlers and also causes social conflicts.

Therefore, the Chinese government and associated mining enterprises working in Tibet must urgently address the limitation of current mining practices in Tibet and shouldachieve ecologically and socially sustainable development.

Source: Tibet 2000 Environment and Developement Issues, DIIR