{"id":685,"date":"2014-06-27T11:23:34","date_gmt":"2014-06-27T05:53:34","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/tibetnature.lhasocialwork.com\/en\/?p=685"},"modified":"2014-07-08T11:29:39","modified_gmt":"2014-07-08T05:59:39","slug":"introduction-forestry","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/introduction-forestry\/","title":{"rendered":"Introduction of Forestry"},"content":{"rendered":"

IN SUMMER 1998, the worst flooding of the (Drichu)\u00a0Yangtze River to ravage China since 1954 killed between\u00a03,656 and 10,000 people and\u00a0\u00a0left 240 millions affected by\u00a0its waters.\u00a0As well as devastating 64 million hectares of\u00a0farmland\u00a0\u00a0and destroying 4.8 million hectares of crops, 5.6\u00a0million homes were\u00a0destroyed and Xinhua (1998h) reported\u00a0that over 0.5 percentage points were shaved off from the\u00a0economic growth resulting in a direct financial loss of\u00a0US$37.5 billion. Epidemics followed due to the spread of\u00a0sewer and latrine contents. According to China Daily the flood\u00a0was expected to shift one million citizens\u2019 incomes to below\u00a0the poverty line of US$75 a year (Pomfret 1998b; Tibetan\u00a0Review 1998b).\"2copy\"<\/a><\/p>\n

The Chinese government was slow to confess that a\u00a0major cause of the Yangtze flood was extensive deforestation\u00a0at the river\u2019s source, which lies deep inside the Tibetan provinces\u00a0of Amdo and Kham.\u00a0Chinese\u00a0statistics state that the Yangtze then peaked at approximately\u00a055,000 cubic metres per second, a rate it had exceeded 23\u00a0times since 1949. It has been estimated that the Yangtze\u00a0now discharges 500 million tons of silt a year into the East\u00a0China Sea, a volume equivalent to the total discharge of the\u00a0Nile, Amazon and Mississippi Rivers combined (Pomfret\u00a01998b; He 1991).<\/p>\n

Traditional Conservation<\/strong>
\nSituated at the centre of the Asian continent, the Tibetan\u00a0Plateau not only contains the world\u2019s highest mountains and\u00a0a vast arid plateau, but also fertile river valleys and ancient\u00a0forests. The major forested areas on the Tibetan Plateau\u00a0are in the south (Dram, Kyirong, Pema Koe, Kongpo,\u00a0Nyingtri, Tawu, Metog and Monyul), the east (Chamdo,\u00a0Drayab, Zogong, Kandze, Potramo, Dartsedo, Nyarong and\u00a0Ngaba), and the southeast (Dechen, Balung, Gyalthang, Mili,\u00a0Lithang, Zayul, Markham and Dzogang).<\/p>\n

These forested\u00a0regions are primarily located on steep isolated slopes and\u00a0prior to 1950 covered over 25.2 million hectares representing\u00a0about nine per cent of the region (DIIR 1992).\u00a0The plateau possesses one of the oldest forest reserves\u00a0in Central Asia and a wealth of over 100,000 species of\u00a0higher plants, 532 species of birds, and many rare wild\u00a0animals such as giant panda, golden monkey, takin, and whitelipped\u00a0deer (DIIR 1998a). These forests provide a variety\u00a0of fruits, nuts and vegetables, including apple, pear, orange,\u00a0banana and walnut. Given the remote and restricted\u00a0conditions of the plateau, several of its botanical species\u00a0have yet to be adequately studied and classified.<\/p>\n

\"Untitled-1<\/a>Tibet\u2019s small population lived primarily on sheep- and\u00a0yak-herding and barley cultivation, leaving fields fallow for\u00a0long periods which maintained fertility and helped prevent\u00a0leaching and erosion. Wildlife was protected in accordance\u00a0with Buddhist principles, while timber was harvested on a\u00a0controlled and selective basis (Winkler 1996).<\/p>\n

There are over 2,000 plants used in Tibetan and allopathic\u00a0medicines which can be collected in the Tibetan\u00a0Plateau. Tibet\u2019s ancient medical system is highly respected\u00a0throughout Central Asia and has a remarkable record of\u00a0success in healing (Burang 1974).In direct contrast to the\u00a0standpoint of allopathy, Tibetan medicine mirrors the\u00a0principles that operate in nature, preferring a slow and gentle\u00a0treatment that places great emphasis on natural remedies,\u00a0treating humans and each medicine as an integral part of\u00a0the environment (Badmayew et al 1982).<\/p>\n

Deforestation in China\u2019s History<\/strong>
\nCompared with the Tibetans, China\u2019s inhabitants have suffered\u00a0a long history of ecological crisis and ancient documents\u00a0show that the deterioration of Chinese forests has\u00a0been taking place over thousands of years. The pace of\u00a0deforestation accelerated ever since the 14th century, setting\u00a0the precedent for a destruction that continues today.\u00a0Starting from China\u2019s Ming period (1368-1644), all the forests\u00a0in the central region of the Huang River valley, as well asthe Xiang River valley were seriously denuded (Edmonds\u00a01994).<\/p>\n

The forest cover in China amounts to only 0.11 hectares\u00a0per capita which is significantly below the world average of\u00a00.77 hectares per capita. China is also the third largest consumer\u00a0of timber in the world and faces an amplified imbalance\u00a0between demand and supply for wood products. The\u00a0present annual consumption level of approximately 300\u00a0million cubic metres of round wood exceeds the combined\u00a0annual forest growth increment and total imports by about\u00a050 million cubic metres per year. As a result, an estimated\u00a0500,000 hectares of forest area is lost each year; this is\u00a0equivalent to 0.5 per cent of total forest area (Ministry of\u00a0Forests 1997).<\/p>\n

Tibet\u2019s Shrinking Forests<\/strong>
\nChina now sees the Tibetan Plateau as its largest forest zone\u00a0as industrial timber extraction penetrates deeper into Tibet\u2019s\u00a0borders. Some 70 state logging enterprises have cut a total\u00a0amount of 120 million cubic metres of wood from the\u00a0forests of eastern Kham (Sichuan), generating over 2 billion\u00a0yuan (US$ 241 million) in taxes and profits between 1949 to\u00a01998 (TIN 1998d). It is said that forest exploitation in western\u00a0Sichuan is 2.3 times more than forest productivity (ICIMOD\u00a01986). According to Tenzin Palbar, who escaped from Tibet\u00a0into India in 1987, in the Ngaba Tibetan Autonomous\u00a0Prefecture from 1955-1991 the Chinese government\u00a0extracted 50.17 million cubic metre of Tibetan timber, which\u00a0is worth US$ 3.1 billion in Tibet itself when calculated at\u00a0the average price of 50 yuan per cubic metre.<\/p>\n

In this region\u00a0there were 340 million cubic metres of forest in 1950 which\u00a0reduced to 180 million cubic metres in 1992, of which only\u00a034 million cubic metres could be used.\u00a0Therefore, Ngaba lost 47 per cent of its\u00a0forest cover between 1950 to 1992 alone\u00a0(TIN 1999a). Income from the forestry\u00a0industry is the main source of cash income\u00a0in many of the poorest counties in Sichuan.<\/p>\n

In the region of Kham absorbed into Sichuan, forest\u00a0cover decreased from 30 per cent in the 1950s to 14 per cent in the 1980s. In the late 1980s and early 1990s the\u00a0momentum has continued (Li 1993). In Ngaba (Ch:Aba)\u00a0and the Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture forest\u00a0cover shrank from 29.5 per cent in the 1950s to 14 per
\ncent in the 1980s (Yang 1986). This has left eight out of 11\u00a0forest factories in Ngaba district with exhausted resources.\u00a0Similarly, in the Kandze district, five of seven forest reserves\u00a0have been depleted (Zhao 1992). Reports from the\u00a0World Watch Institute estimate the heavily-forested area from\u00a0the Tibetan Plateau to the Yangtze River basin has lost 85\u00a0per cent of its original forest cover (Brown and Halweil\u00a01998).<\/p>\n

Forest herbs have immense value in China and Chinese\u00a0timber factories in Tibet claim to have culled up to eight\u00a0million cubic metres of herbs, with a value of\u00a0US$17.2 million (Dekhang 1996). This confirms that exploitation\u00a0of Tibetan forests is not restricted to timber alone.<\/p>\n

Treasure and Treasury<\/strong>
\nRecognition of the \u201cnatural\u201d world\u2019s interdependent values\u00a0is fundamental to creating a healthy relationship with one\u2019s\u00a0environment. When forests are understood only in a utilitarian\u00a0context many other values are disregarded and consequently\u00a0sacrificed and harmed.\u00a0It is undeniable that timber resources extracted from forests\u00a0are indispensable to human life. Additionally, a forest\u00a0contains abundant plants and animals, complex stratified\u00a0structures, many biological products and immense capabilities\u00a0to exchange substance and energy, which play important\u00a0roles in maintaining the life-support system of this planet. Forests are not only a treasure but also a treasury of\u00a0plant and animal resources. In brief, the concept of \u201cforest\u201d\u00a0means not merely timber, but also a simultaneous\u00a0consideration of intrinsic, ecological, social and economic\u00a0values.<\/p>\n

Fuelwood and Land Cultivation<\/strong>
\nIt has been suggested that the traditional use of forests for\u00a0fuelwood by the inhabitants of the Tibetan Plateau is a major\u00a0contributing factor to deforestation of the area. However,\u00a0upon closer examination it becomes clear that despite the\u00a0large demand for fuelwood, traditionally Tibet\u2019s population\u00a0was small and most fuel was derived from shrubs, branches\u00a0and predominantly agricultural residues such as dung (DIIR\u00a01992). This fact was also reconfirmed in December 1998\u00a0by a majority of the newly-arrived Tibetan refugees\u00a0interviewed in Dharamsala. Furthermore, in Lhasa fuelwood\u00a0is now sold at a price per cubic metre that exceeds the average\u00a0annual per capita income (Richardson 1990). Hence,\u00a0the traditional use of forests for fuelwood on the Tibetan\u00a0Plateau accounts for a negligible part of the pressure onforest cover.<\/p>\n

\"Untitled-3\"<\/a><\/p>\n

As illustrated by Winkler\u2019s research, Tibetan traditions\u00a0were not completely without effect and have slowly altered\u00a0the environment over several millennia. One example is the\u00a0reduction of forest cover through grazing. \u201cFull utilisation\u00a0of the south-facing slopes for winter grazing enables herders\u00a0to keep their store of winter fodder which is a time- and\u00a0energy-consuming necessity in any environment with harsh\u00a0winters to an absolute minimum\u201d (Winkler 1998). However,\u00a0unlike the consequences of commercial timber extraction\u00a0and uncontrolled resource liquidation, the impact of the\u00a0past was not a short-sighted destruction of resources, but\u00a0rather a logical consequence of developing various regions\u00a0of Tibet as grazing land. But in today\u2019s Tibet, as in many
\nplaces around the earth, processes of land alteration that\u00a0evolved over thousands of years can now happen within\u00a0decades or even years.<\/p>\n

Faulty Forest Enforcement<\/strong><\/p>\n

While deforestation on the Tibetan Plateau is a complex\u00a0issue and its causes are difficult to isolate, Tibetan, Chinese\u00a0and foreign researchers maintain that the dwindling forest\u00a0cover is primarily caused by poor forest management. Forest\u00a0management in this context is an inclusive term that refers\u00a0to human-created changes in environmental conditions ranging\u00a0from random timber poaching and various inefficiencies\u00a0to high-yield industrial logging.\u00a0A host of administrative dilemmas face China in its forest\u00a0practices. This predicament is embedded in faulty enforcement\u00a0rather than in a crisis of insufficient forest laws. For\u00a0example, Article 25 of the (Forestry Law(s) of the People\u2019s\u00a0Republic of China 1985) further states that: \u201cThe state,\u00a0acting on the principle that consumption of the timber forest\u00a0should be lower than its growth, imposes strict control on\u00a0the annual forest cut\u201d (Richardson 1990). Recent government\u00a0planning is targeting reforestation with the intention of\u00a0increasing the forested area to a level of self-sufficiency. Unfortunately, there are inherent deficiencies in the Chinese system that create gaps between policy and practice and nullify optimistic goals, which in turn perpetuates high deforestation rates.<\/p>\n

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IN SUMMER 1998, the worst flooding of the (Drichu)\u00a0Yangtze River to ravage China since 1954 killed between\u00a03,656 and 10,000 people and\u00a0\u00a0left 240 millions affected by\u00a0its waters.\u00a0As well as devastating 64 million hectares of\u00a0farmland\u00a0\u00a0and destroying 4.8…<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[19],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-685","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-forestry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/685","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=685"}],"version-history":[{"count":32,"href":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/685\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":747,"href":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/685\/revisions\/747"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=685"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=685"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=685"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}