![\"Untitled-1](\"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/06\/Untitled-1-copy2.jpg\")
<\/a><\/p>\ninvestments (Lally 1997) drain Tibet\u2019s mineral wealth. The\u00a0Chinese authorities have constantly tried to hide the capital\u00a0outflow of mineral extraction from Tibet into Chinese\u00a0treasuries (ICJ 1997). From 1952 to 1990 mining in Tibet\u00a0generated a profit of more than US$ 2 billion (15.4 billion\u00a0yuan) for China (Research and Analysis Centre 1991).\u00a0However, the destructive exploitation of mineral resources\u00a0and unchecked mining practices resulted in widespread\u00a0degradation of the environment. In several cases it has\u00a0permanently altered the landscape \u2014 leaving massive debris,\u00a0slag-heaps, abandoned mines, slope destabilisation and\u00a0permanent land degradation.<\/p>\n
GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION<\/strong> During the past few decades scientists have discovered\u00a0much evidence that shows the Tibetan Plateau has undergone\u00a0radical changes in topography, vegetation and climate. The\u00a0recent discoveries of giraffe fossils at 4,500 metres above\u00a0sea level in Driru County and three-toed fossils at 4,100\u00a0metres in Kyirong County, U-Tsang, infer that the land of\u00a0Tibet was once much lower than it is today and that the\u00a0climate was once hot and humid (Ren et al 1985). According\u00a0to a Radio Peking report of 20 January 1997 fossils of\u00a0dinosaurs were unearthed in the mountains in Tibet, some\u00a0dating back 160 million years.<\/p>\n The intense uplifting of the mountain systems along the\u00a0margins of the plateau has effectively blocked humid\u00a0currents from entering and has turned the interior of the\u00a0plateau into an arid region. Therefore, intense and extensive\u00a0uplifting since the Neocene Period has been the leading factor\u00a0in creating the physiographical features of A RICH HISTORY<\/strong> Tibetans never initiated modern large-scale mining\u00a0schemes since there were sufficient raw\u00a0minerals on the surface of the earth to meet\u00a0demands. Another reason that contributed\u00a0to the preservation of the plateau\u2019s mineral\u00a0resources was the unique Tibetan approach\u00a0to ecology. The centuries-old symbiosis\u00a0between nature and religion led Tibetans\u00a0to live in harmony with their land; this can be attributed\u00a0largely to their profound faith in the principle of\u00a0interdependence among living and non-living entities.<\/p>\n Tibetans believed that mining the natural resources would\u00a0diminish the strength of the land, invite the displeasure of\u00a0the deities who are the guardian of minerals and therefore\u00a0bring harm to society (Atisha 1991). Another factor that\u00a0has helped to preserve the country\u2019s rich mineral resources\u00a0was the Tibetans\u2019 deliberate disinterest in mining for fear of\u00a0the government imposing heavy taxes (Shakabpa 1984). In\u00a0certain cases where mining was considered imperative, rituals\u00a0were performed to appease the deities who were believed\u00a0to be the \u201cowners of the land\u201d. Rituals like sangsol (incense\u00a0offering) and the occasional performance of purification\u00a0rites of objects and the environment helped the Tibetans\u00a0continue to preserve and conserve their environment.<\/p>\n The first Tibetan metallurgist to use large quantities of\u00a0minerals was probably Thang Thong Gyalpo (1361-1485). He was a mahasiddha (great accomplished one), a spiritual\u00a0master, a talented iron bridge builder and a great theatrical\u00a0performer. During his several spiritual journeys through Tibet\u00a0and other countries he realised that building bridges, stupas\u00a0and images was an integral part of his commitment to the\u00a0bodhisattva ideal (a person who generates an aspiration to\u00a0attain enlightenment for the sake of sentient beings). It is\u00a0also believed that during his engineering work he coerced\u00a0local demons, nagas (mythical water spirits with half human\u00a0and half serpent physiques) and spirits to abandon their\u00a0destructive activities; they eventually vowed to refrain from\u00a0obstructing boats and help in building bridges (Gyatso 1991).<\/p>\n Thang Thong Gyalpo\u2019s first iron bridge was known as\u00a0Yuna Chaksam (Yuna being the village name and Chaksam\u00a0referring to the iron bridge), which is situated in the upper\u00a0Kyichu valley north of Lhasa. The historic iron chains still\u00a0exist and span about 30 metres, but modern steel cables\u00a0stabilise the bridge today (Kahlen 1993). In all, he was said\u00a0to have built 58 bridges (Gyatso 1991) and his discoveries\u00a0of iron ore, developing smelting techniques and constructing\u00a0iron chain suspension bridges, were attributed to the tradition\u00a0of Buddhist teachings. Thus his engineering feat contributed\u00a0to his elevation to the status of a realised master. To avert\u00a0plagues, Thang Thong Gyalpo once built a stupa from lime\u00a0and performed elaborate rituals to appease the local spirits,\u00a0and repeated these rituals when his bridge-building required\u00a0large quantities of iron.<\/p>\n Since that time, no record or evidence of mining has\u00a0been heard of in Tibet \u2014 with two exceptions. In 1900,\u00a0gold extraction was carried out near Mapham Tso (Lake\u00a0Manasarover) in Western Tibet. However, following an\u00a0outbreak of smallpox the Tibetan government stopped the\u00a0mining because the epidemic was attributed to the wrath of\u00a0the presiding deity of the region. In the 1920s, Khenrap\u00a0Kunsang Mondrag prospected parts of Dakpo and Lhoka\u00a0in Central Tibet and found large reserves of petroleum. He\u00a0had been one of four students sent by the Thirteenth Dalai\u00a0Lama to Britain to study where he majored in mining\u00a0engineering (Shakabpa 1984). On finding the reserves,\u00a0however, the government did not grant permission for\u00a0extraction on the ground that it would affect the ecosystem\u00a0of the region (Tibetan Bulletin 1992c).<\/p>\n LARGE-SCALE MINING TODAY AND TOMORROW<\/strong><\/p>\n Large scale modern mining began in Tibet only after China\u00a0took full control of the country following the Fourteenth\u00a0Dalai Lama\u2019s escape in 1959. Since then many areas have\u00a0been surveyed and prospected by several Chinese\u00a0government scientists. Their discoveries of huge reserves\u00a0of various minerals, some of which are among the largest\u00a0deposits in the world, catapulted the Chinese to dub Tibet\u00a0the \u201cTreasure Bowl Awaiting Development\u201d.<\/p>\n Some of the geological expeditions carried out since then\u00a0in Tibet were the Tibetan Plateau Expedition in 1957, the\u00a0Sino-French Expedition in 1983, the Sino-German\u00a0Expedition in 1984 and the Sino-British Geotraverse\u00a0Expedition in 1985 (Tsundue 1994).\u00a0In the \u2018TAR\u2019 and Eastern Tibet, 1:1 million\u00a0and 1:200,000 geological maps have been\u00a0worked out respectively (Namgyal 1995). The\u00a0interest in mining in Tibet looks as though it\u00a0will continue for long in the future as geological explorations\u00a0tend to bring further successful results. In the Ninth Five\u00a0Year Plan (1996-2000), China planned to invest nearly\u00a0US$1.25 billion (10 billion yuan) in prospecting and\u00a0developing mineral resources in Tibet\u2019s central and western\u00a0regions (Norwill 1997). In 1992, China accorded \u2018TAR\u2019\u00a0\u201cSpecial Economic Zone\u201d status and encouraged foreign\u00a0investment by offering favourable tax terms. China has also\u00a0undertaken construction of the costly US$\u00a06.2 billion Tibet-China rail link from Gormo\u00a0(Ch: Golmud) to Lhasa, which will aid\u00a0transportation of natural resources from\u00a0the plateau to China and will encourage\u00a0Chinese settlers into Tibet.\u00a0Since the inception of large-scale mining\u00a0industries in Tibet, huge quantities of minerals were\u00a0transported to China to help build its economy. These minerals\u00a0were consumed largely by mineral-based industries and the\u00a0surpluses were exported to other countries. In recent years,\u00a0the expansion of Chinese markets in the international arena\u00a0has further accelerated the growth of the mining industry in\u00a0Tibet, with unprecedented investments from multinational\u00a0companies and assistance from international aid agencies.<\/p>\n As the industrialisation of China is heavily dependent on a\u00a0huge consumption of resources and energy (NORAD 1997),\u00a0Tibet\u2019s mineral reserves have become all the more important.\u00a0The extraction and processing of these reserves is thought\u00a0to be one of the principal reasons for opening up of the\u00a0economy and road network, and for the undertaking of\u00a0major development projects such as the controversial\u00a0Yamdrok Tso hydropower project (DIIR 1992).<\/p>\n Today mineral extraction forms the largest economic\u00a0activity in the industrial sector in Tibet. The growth of the\u00a0mining sector is estimated at an annual rate of 30 per cent\u00a0in the Ninth Five Year Plan (Tibetan Review 1998a). According\u00a0to Dhondup Namgyal, the then Director of the TAR Mining\u00a0Bureau in Lhasa in 1995, experts believe the mineral\u00a0resources in Central Tibet area are worth US$ 81.3 billion\u00a0in market value. Given the difficulty in obtaining information\u00a0about mining operations in Tibet, however, the figures quoted\u00a0officially are likely to represent only a small proportion of\u00a0the true extent of extraction.\u00a0The further large-scale\u00a0development of mineral industries in Tibet is rising.<\/p>\n The\u00a0Regional Secretary, Chen Kuiyuan, in Tibet Regional\u00a0Economic Work Forum, held in Lhasa on 17 December\u00a01999, confirmed that the \u201ctapping of potential mineral\u00a0resources to develop superior industries in Tibet is one of\u00a0the main strategic policy decisions on the great development\u00a0of Tibet\u201d (Tibet TV, 1999).<\/p>\n Source: Tibet 2000 Environment and Development Issues, DIIR<\/strong><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" THE MINERAL resources of Tibet are high in quality and\u00a0rich in quantity and variety. This fact had been known to\u00a0Tibetans for several centuries, yet they did not exploit the\u00a0resources for economic gain or for any…<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[18],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-609","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-minerals-and-mining"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/609","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=609"}],"version-history":[{"count":20,"href":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/609\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":750,"href":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/609\/revisions\/750"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=609"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=609"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/tibetnature.net\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=609"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}
\nThe present geomorphological features of the Tibetan\u00a0Plateau were formed as a result of intense upheaval during\u00a0the last 40-50 million years and therefore constitute the\u00a0youngest macromorphological unit in the world (Molnar\u00a01998). According to the theory of plate tectonics, the uplifting\u00a0of the plateau resulted from a collision between two\u00a0continental plates, the Eurasian and the Indian Plates. The\u00a0Indian Plate moved northward, sliding under the Eurasian\u00a0Plate and prompting its edge to rise and form a belt of\u00a0ultra-basic rocks and mixed rocks in the valley of the Yarlung\u00a0Tsangpo River. This river is located along the suture line\u00a0between the two continental plates and is their clear-cut\u00a0boundary (Ren et al 1985).<\/p>\n
\nthe Tibetan Plateau (Ren et al 1985). Most\u00a0importantly, the geological processes of\u00a0uplift and subduction by which Tibet was\u00a0formed have endowed it with considerable\u00a0mineral reserves.<\/p>\n
\nSince medieval times minerals have played\u00a0diverse roles in the lives of Tibetans.\u00a0Minerals are used as vital ingredients in\u00a0Tibetan phamaceutical preparations. Many\u00a0religious objects and household and farm\u00a0implements were made from minerals.\u00a0Precious metals like gold, silver and copper\u00a0were used largely in monasteries and\u00a0nunneries and for ornamentation. Some of\u00a0the metals mined in Tibet \u2014 particularly\u00a0gold \u2014 were traded with India, Nepal, China and other\u00a0neighbouring countries and so Tibet gained worldwide fame\u00a0as a major repository of important minerals. Its name in\u00a0Chinese, Xizang, means \u201cWestern Treasure House\u201d.<\/p>\n<\/p>\n